Furthermore, none of these therapies showed simultaneous benefit for symptomatic relief, haemodynamic improvement, increased survival and end-organ protection. Although, the majority of patients admitted with PO rapidly improve as result of conventional intravenous (IV) therapies, treatment of PO remains largely opinion based as there is a general lack of good evidence to guide therapy. PO represents a medical emergency and treatment should be individually tailored to the urgency of the presentation and acute haemodynamic characteristics. However, recent studies have demonstrated that PO formation and resolution is critically regulated by active endothelial and alveolar signalling. The clinical picture of PO is dominated by signs of pulmonary congestion, and its pathogenesis has been attributed predominantly to an imbalance in Starling forces across the alveolar–capillary barrier. Pulmonary oedema (PO) is a common manifestation of acute heart failure (AHF) and is associated with a high-acuity presentation and with poor in-hospital outcomes.

Pulmonary edema treatment